d-of-section questions a List six characteristics of all living organisms. b In which three ways do human cells differ from those of plants? c Draw a fully labelled diagram of the structure of a typical (unspecialised) animal cell and describe the function of each part.

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### **a. List Six Characteristics of All Living Organisms**

1. **Cellular Organization**
   - All living things are composed of one or more cells, which are considered the basic units of life.

2. **Metabolism**
   - Living organisms carry out chemical reactions that allow them to obtain energy and use it for growth, repair, and maintenance. This includes processes like respiration, digestion, and photosynthesis.

3. **Homeostasis**
   - The ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes. Examples include regulating temperature, pH balance, and water content.

4. **Growth and Development**
   - Organisms grow by increasing in size and may undergo specific developmental changes throughout their life cycle.

5. **Reproduction**
   - Living things have the ability to reproduce themselves, either sexually or asexually, ensuring the continuation of their species.

6. **Response to Stimuli**
   - Organisms can respond to environmental changes or stimuli, such as moving towards light, reacting to temperature changes, or responding to sound.

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### **b. In Which Three Ways Do Human Cells Differ from Those of Plants?**

1. **Presence of a Cell Wall**
   - **Plant Cells:** Have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose that provides structure and support.
   - **Human Cells:** Lack a cell wall; instead, they have an elastic cell membrane.

2. **Chloroplasts**
   - **Plant Cells:** Contain chloroplasts, the site of photosynthesis, enabling plants to convert sunlight into energy.
   - **Human Cells:** Do not have chloroplasts as humans obtain energy through consumption of organic matter.

3. **Central Vacuole**
   - **Plant Cells:** Possess a large central vacuole that maintains cell rigidity, stores nutrients, and removes waste.
   - **Human Cells:** May have small vesicles or vacuoles, but they are not as prominent or large as those in plant cells.

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### **c. Structure and Function of a Typical (Unspecialised) Animal Cell**

While I can't provide a visual diagram, I can describe the main components of an unspecialised animal cell along with their functions:

1. **Cell Membrane**
   - **Description:** A flexible, semi-permeable barrier that surrounds the cell.
   - **Function:** Controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell, maintaining the internal environment.

2. **Nucleus**
   - **Description:** A large, central organelle surrounded by a nuclear envelope.
   - **Function:** Contains genetic material (DNA) and controls cellular activities, including growth and reproduction.

3. **Cytoplasm**
   - **Description:** A jelly-like substance filling the cell.
   - **Function:** Holds all the organelles in place and allows for the movement of materials within the cell.

4. **Mitochondria**
   - **Description:** Bean-shaped organelles with a double membrane.
   - **Function:** Produce energy (ATP) through cellular respiration, powering various cell functions.

5. **Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)**
   - **Types:**
     - **Rough ER:** Studded with ribosomes.
     - **Smooth ER:** Lacks ribosomes.
   - **Function:**
     - **Rough ER:** Synthesizes proteins.
     - **Smooth ER:** Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies chemicals.

6. **Ribosomes**
   - **Description:** Small complexes of RNA and proteins, either free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER.
   - **Function:** Manufacture proteins by translating genetic instructions.

7. **Golgi Apparatus**
   - **Description:** A stack of flattened membranous sacs.
   - **Function:** Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for storage or transport out of the cell.

8. **Lysosomes**
   - **Description:** Small, spherical organelles containing digestive enzymes.
   - **Function:** Break down waste materials and cellular debris.

9. **Centrioles**
   - **Description:** Cylindrical structures composed of microtubules, typically found in pairs near the nucleus.
   - **Function:** Play a role in cell division by helping to organize the mitotic spindle.

10. **Cytoskeleton**
    - **Description:** A network of protein fibers (microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules) throughout the cytoplasm.
    - **Function:** Provides structural support, facilitates cell movement, and helps in intracellular transport.

11. **Vacuoles (usually small in animal cells)**
    - **Description:** Membrane-bound sacs.
    - **Function:** Store nutrients, waste products, and other materials needed by the cell.

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**Note:** In unspecialised (primitive) animal cells, organelles are generally less complex than in specialised cells. These structures work together to maintain the cell's health, respond to its environment, and carry out essential life functions.
**a. Six Characteristics of All Living Organisms** 1. **Cellular Organization:** Made up of one or more cells. 2. **Metabolism:** Carry out chemical reactions for energy. 3. **Homeostasis:** Maintain stable internal conditions. 4. **Growth and Development:** Increase in size and change over time. 5. **Reproduction:** Ability to produce offspring. 6. **Response to Stimuli:** React to environmental changes. **b. Three Ways Human Cells Differ from Plant Cells** 1. **Cell Wall:** Human cells lack a rigid cell wall. 2. **Chloroplasts:** Human cells do not have chloroplasts for photosynthesis. 3. **Central Vacuole:** Human cells have smaller vacuoles compared to plant cells. **c. Structure and Function of a Typical Animal Cell** - **Cell Membrane:** Controls what enters and exits the cell. - **Nucleus:** Contains DNA and controls cell activities. - **Cytoplasm:** Holds organelles and allows movement of materials. - **Mitochondria:** Produces energy for the cell. - **Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):** Synthesizes proteins and lipids. - **Ribosomes:** Manufactures proteins. - **Golgi Apparatus:** Packages and sorts proteins. - **Lysosomes:** Break down waste materials. - **Centrioles:** Help in cell division. - **Cytoskeleton:** Provides structure and aids in movement. - **Vacuoles:** Store nutrients and waste. These components work together to keep the cell healthy and functioning properly.

d-of-section questions a List six characteristics of all living organisms. b In which three ways do human cells differ from those of plants? c Draw a fully labelled diagram of the structure of a typical (unspecialised) animal cell and describe the function of each part.

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